Side Channel Power Analysis Attack Simulation In Python — Complete Documentation & Simulation

Overview & System Context

Side Channel Power Analysis Attack Simulation In Python: Comprehensive Web-Sourced Technical Investigation Exhaustive Research Dossier · Pure Web-Scraped Content: ~9166 Words · Real Software Screenshots: 3 1. Executive Overview & Technical Background Linux-based operating systems can be used for playing video games. Because fewer games natively support the Linux kernel than Windows, various software has been made to run Windows games, software, and programs, such as Wine, Cedega, DXVK, and Proton, and managers such as Lutris and PlayOnLinux. The Linux gaming community has a presence on the internet with users who attempt to run games that are not officially supported on Linux.

Linux gaming started largely as an extension of the already present Unix gaming scene, which dates back to that system's conception in 1969 with the game Space Travel and the first edition in 1971, with both systems sharing many similar titles. These games were mostly either arcade and parlour type games or text adventures using libraries like curses. A notable example of this are the "BSD Games", a collection of interactive fiction and other text-mode amusements. The free software philosophy and open-source methodology which drove the development of the operating system in general also spawned the creation of various early free games. Popular early titles included Netrek and the various XAsteroids, XBattle, XBill, XBoing, X-Bomber, XConq, XDigger, XEmeraldia, XEvil, XGalaga, XGammon, XLander, XLife, XMahjong, XMine, XSoldier, XPilot, XRobots, XRubiks, XShogi, XScavenger, XTris, XTron, XTic and XTux games using the X Window System. Other games targeted or also supported the SVGAlib library allowing them to run without a windowing system, such as LinCity, Maelstrom, Sasteroids, and SABRE. The General Graphics Interface was also used for games like U.R.B.A.N The Cyborg Project and Dave Gnukem ported from DOS. As the operating system itself grew and expanded, the amount of free and open-source games also increased in scale and complexity, with both clones of historically popular releases beginning with BZFlag, LinCity, and Freeciv, and original creations such as Rocks'n'Diamonds, Cube, The Battle for Wesnoth, and Tux Racer.

The beginning of Linux as a gaming platform for commercial video games is widely credited to have begun in 1994 when Dave D. Taylor ported the game Doom to Linux, and many other systems, during his spare time. Shareware copies of the game were included on various Linux discs, including those packed in with reference books. Ancient Domains of Mystery was also released for Linux in 1994 by Thomas Biskup, building on the roguelike legacy of games such as Moria and its descendent Angband, but more specifically Hack and NetHack.

The Linux Game Tome was taken over by Bob Zimbinski in 1998 eventually growing to over 2000 entries, sponsored by retailer Penguin Computing and later LGP until it went down in 2013, although mirrors still exist. The site LinuxGames covered news and commentary from November 1998 until its host Atomicgamer went down in 2015. It was established by Marvin Malkowski, head of the Telefragged gaming network, alongside Al Koskelin and Dustin Reyes; Reyes died 8 August 2023.

Zoid Kirsch from id Software ported Quake II to Linux. Two programmers from Origin ported Ultima Online to Linux and MP Entertainment released an adventure game Hopkins FBI for Linux On 9 November 1998, a new software firm called Loki Software was founded by Scott Draeker, a former lawyer who became interested in porting games to Linux after being introduced to the system through his work as a software licensing attorney. Loki, although a commercial failure, is credited with the birth of the modern Linux game industry. Loki developed several free software tools, such as the Loki installer (also known as Loki Setup), and supported the development of the Simple DirectMedia Layer, and starting the OpenAL audio library project. These are still often credited as being the cornerstones of Linux game development. They were also responsible for bringing nineteen high-profile games to the platform before its closure in 2002.

Figure 1: GitHub - laiqinghui/CorrelationPowerAnalysis: Implementation of a side ... After Loki's closure, the Linux game market experienced some changes. Although some new firms, such as Linux Game Publishing and RuneSoft, would largely continue the role of a standard porting house, the focus began to change with Linux game proponents encouraging game developers to port their game products themselves or through individual contractors.

Influential to this was Ryan C. Gordon, a former Loki employee who would over the next decade port several game titles to multiple platforms, including Linux. Ryan ported America's Army, Candy Cruncher, Serious Sam: The First Encounter, and Unreal Tournament 2003 to Linux. Linux Game Publishing had initially tried to pick up the support rights to many of Loki's titles, but in the end it was only able to acquire the rights to MindRover: The Europa Project. They released the updated version of Mindrover and its downloadable update for owners of the old Loki version. Return to Castle Wolfenstein was released for Linux and with the Linux port done in-house by Timothee Besset Chronic logic released Bridge Construction Set and Triptych for Linux. Sunspire Studios released in retail commercial expansion of the game titled Tux Racer.

The Linux gaming market also started to experience some growth towards the end of the decade with the rise of independent video game development, with many "indie" developers favouring support for multiple platforms. The Humble Indie Bundle initiatives inaugurated in 2010 helped to formally demonstrate this trend, with Linux users representing a sizable population of their purchase base, and as being the most consistently financially generous in spending. The Humble Indie Bundle V in 2012 faced controversy for featuring a Wine-based release of Limbo prepared by CodeWeavers, while a native version was later released in 2014. Humble eventually began offering Windows-only games in their bundles and on their store. In 2009, the small indie game company Entourev LLC published Voltley to Linux which is the first commercial exclusive game for this operating system. In the same year, LGP released Shadowgrounds which was the first commercial game for Linux using the Nvidia PhysX middleware. The GamingOnLinux website was launched on 4 July 2009, and eventually succeeded LinuxGames as the main source of news and commentary. The release of a Linux version of Desura in 2011, a digital distribution platform with a main focus on small independent developers, was heralded by several commentators as an important step to greater acknowledgement of Linux as a gaming platform. Shortly before this, Canonical launched the Ubuntu Software Center which also sold digital games. The digital store Gameolith also launched in 2011 focused principally on Linux before expanding in 2012 and closing in 2014.

On 22 August 2018, Valve released their fork of Wine called Proton, aimed at gaming. It features some improvements over the vanilla Wine such as Vulkan-based DirectX 11 implementation, Steam integration, better full screen and game controller support and improved performance for multi-threaded games. It has since grown to include support for DirectX 9 and DirectX 12 over Vulkan. The itch.io app added its own Wine integration in June 2020, while Lutris and PlayOnLinux are long-standing independent solutions for compatibility wrappers. As with Wine and Cedega in the past, concerns have been raised over whether Proton hinders native development more than it encourages use of the platform. Prodeus dropped native support in favour of Proton shortly before final release and Arcen Games cancelled planned native support for Heart of the Machine.

Valve has expressed no preference over Proton or native ports among developers. On 25 February 2022, Valve released Steam Deck, a handheld game console running SteamOS 3.0. The deployment of Proton and other design decisions were based on the limited response to their previous Steam Machines. Linux was also used as a base for several nostalgia consoles, including the Neo Geo X, NES Classic Edition, Super NES Classic Edition, Sega Genesis Mini, Intellivision Amico, Lichee Pocket 4A, and the Atari VCS. It also powers the more general Polymega, Anbernic RG351 and 5G552, as well as the Game Gadget, Evercade, VS, EXP and Super Pocket retrogaming consoles by Blaze Entertainment. As of early 2023, the retro game store Zoom Platform was enhancing Linux support on their available titles.

Some companies ported games to Linux running on instruction sets other than x86, such as Alpha, PowerPC, SPARC, MIPS or ARM. Loki Entertainment Software ported Civilization: Call to Power, Eric's Ultimate Solitaire, Heroes of Might and Magic III, Myth II: Soulblighter, Railroad Tycoon II Gold Edition and Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri with Alien Crossfire expansion pack to Linux PowerPC. They also ported Civilization: Call to Power, Eric's Ultimate Solitaire, Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri with Alien Crossfire expansion pack to Linux Alpha and Civilization: Call to Power, Eric's Ultimate Solitaire to Linux SPARC. Linux Game Publishing published Candy Cruncher, Majesty Gold, NingPo MahJong and Soul Ride to Linux PowerPC. They also ported Candy Cruncher, Soul Ride to Linux SPARC and Soul Ride to Linux Alpha. Illwinter Game Design ported Dominions: Priests, Prophets and Pretenders, Dominions II: The Ascension Wars and Dominions 3 to Linux PowerPC, as well as Conquest of Elysium 3, Dominions 4: Thrones of Ascension to Raspberry Pi. Hyperion Entertainment ported Sin to Linux PowerPC published by Titan Computer and Gorky 17 to Linux PowerPC which later was published by LGP. Runesoft hired Gunnar von Boehn which ported Robin Hood – The Legend of Sherwood to Linux PowerPC. Later Runesoft ported Airline Tycoon Deluxe to Raspberry Pi was running Debian GNU/Linux. Laminar Research ported X-Plane 8 to Linux PowerPC. Iain McLeod ported Spheres of Chaos to Linux on the PlayStation 2 consoles and later re-released it as a freeware game.

Figure 2: GitHub - laiqinghui/CorrelationPowerAnalysis: Implementation of a side ... The Steam Hardware Survey reports that as of August 2026, 3.9% of users are using some form of Linux as their platform's main operating system. The Unity game engine used to make their statistics available and in March 2016 reported that Linux users accounted for 0.4% of players. In 2010, in the first Humble Bundle sales, Linux formed 18% of purchases.

Linux as a gaming platform can also refer to operating systems based on the Linux kernel and specifically designed for the sole purpose of gaming. Examples are SteamOS, which is an operating system for Steam Machines, Steam Deck and general computers, video game consoles built from components found in the classical home computer, (embedded) operating systems like Tizen and Pandora, and handheld game consoles like GP2X, and Neo Geo X. The Nvidia Shield runs Android as an operating system, which is based on a modified Linux kernel. The open source design of the Linux software platform allows the operating system to be compatible with various computer instruction sets and many peripherals, such as game controllers and head-mounted displays. As an example, HTC Vive, which is a virtual reality head-mounted display, supports the Linux gaming platform.

Various level editors exist for Linux, such as wxqoole, GtkRadiant, TrenchBroom and J.A.C.K. for the id Tech engines and related, Eureka, SLADE and ReDoomEd for the Doom engine, and the general purpose tile map editors LDtk, Ogmo, and Tiled. Several game development tools have been available for Linux, including GNU Debugger, LLDB, Valgrind, glslang and others. VOGL, a debugger for OpenGL was released on 12 March 2014.

Figure 3: Side Channel Power Analysis Demo: 120 Seconds (CHES2013) - YouTube classical physics: Havok, Newton Game Dynamics and PhysX audio: Audiokinetic Wwise, FMOD other: SpeedTree A significant share of the available middleware already runs natively on Linux, only a very few run exclusively on Linux. Wine is a compatibility layer that provides binary compatibility and makes it possible to run software, that was written and compiled for Microsoft Windows, on Linux. The Wine project hosts a user-submitted application database (known as Wine AppDB) that lists programs and games along with ratings and reviews which detail how well they run with Wine. Wine AppDB also has a commenting system, which often includes instructions on how to modify a system to run a certain game which cannot run on a normal or default configuration. Many games are rated as running flawlessly, and there are also many other games that can be run with varying degrees of success. The use of Wine for gaming has proved controversial in the Linux community as some feel it is preventing, or at least hindering, the further growth of native gaming on the platform.

There are numerous emulators for Linux. There are also APIs, virtual machines, and machine emulators that provide binary compatibility: Linux has been ported to several game consoles, including the Xbox, PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, GameCube, and Wii which allows game developers without an expensive game development kit to access console hardware. Several gaming peripherals also work with Linux.

A further niche exists for running games, either through ports or lxrun, on Solaris and derivatives such as OpenIndiana, Darwin distributions such as PureDarwin, Coherent, SerenityOS, RedoxOS, ToaruOS, Xv6, Fiwix, or on Minix and Hurd based systems. There has been some cross-pollination with purely proprietary Unix derivatives, such as AIX, QNX, Domain/OS, HP-UX, IRIX (see here), Xenix, SCO Unix, Unixware, Tru64 UNIX, LynxOS (which features inbuilt Linux compatibility), Ultrix, OpenVMS, z/OS UNIX System Services, and even A/UX. The games Doom and Quake were developed by id Software on NeXTStep, a forerunner of modern macOS, before being ported to DOS and back to numerous other Unix variants. This involved reaching out to numerous Unix vendors to supply machines to use in the build and testing process.

2. System Architecture & Core Working Principles The community surrounding Linux and free/open source video games is very small, almost all medium-sized or mature free video games have a forum or other means of communication. However, in recent years, there have been no meetups for any of the games, although free video games have been present at free software community events, including FOSDEM, where the video game Luanti usually has its own stand. There have also been online events such as onfoss. On the other hand, many projects use the sale of merchandise with logos and other images from the video game on T-shirts and other products as one of their sources of funding.

17 January – A study in Nature finds that the Greenland ice sheet is melting 20% faster than previously estimated, due to the effects of calving-front retreat. The loss of 30m tonnes of ice an hour is "sufficient to affect ocean circulation and the distribution of heat energy around the globe." 18 January NASA reports the end of the Ingenuity helicopter's operation, after 72 successful flights on Mars, due to a broken rotor blade. A potential candidate for the first known radio pulsar-black hole binary is reported by astronomers. The heavier of the two lies in the "mass gap" between neutron stars and black holes. The pair are located in the globular cluster NGC 1851. Two insect-like robots, a mini-bug and a water strider, are reported as being the smallest, lightest, and fastest fully-functional micro-robots ever created. Bottom trawling is found to release 340 million tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere each year, nearly 1 percent of all global CO2 emissions in addition to acidifying oceans. 19 January – Japan becomes the fifth country to achieve a soft landing on the Moon, with its SLIM mission.

21 January – Biologists report the discovery of "obelisks", a new class of viroid-like elements, and "oblins", their related group of proteins, in the human microbiome. 23 January – A viable and sustainable approach for gold recovery from e-waste is demonstrated. 24 January The discovery of 85 exoplanet candidates based on data from the TESS observatory is reported. All have orbital periods of between 20 and 700 days, with temperatures similar to those of Solar System planets. A global analysis of groundwater levels reports rapid declines of over 0.5 meters per year are widespread and that declines have accelerated over the past four decades in 30% of the world's regional aquifers. The study also shows cases in which depletion trends have reversed following interventions such as policy changes. 25 January – The Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) is given the go-ahead by the European Space Agency (ESA). It will launch in 2035. 26 January – Astronomers report the detection of water vapor in the atmosphere of GJ 9827 d, an exoplanet about twice the size of Earth. 29 January Elon Musk's startup Neuralink implants their first microchip into a human brain. A robotic sensor able to read braille with 87.5% accuracy and at twice the speed of a human is demonstrated. 31 January – NASA reports the discovery of a super-Earth called TOI-715 b, located in the habitable zone of a red dwarf star about 137 light-years away. Promising innovations relating to global challenges are reported: a self-powered solar panel cleaning system using an electrodynamic screen, removing contaminants through high-voltage electric fields, is demonstrated (4 Jan), an atmospheric water generator (WaterCube) for humidity levels above 40% is released (9 Jan). Promising results of health and medical research are reported: mouse-tested novel antibiotics class (including Zosurabalpin) against A. baumannii (3 Jan), small-trialed focused ultrasound for blood–brain barrier opening for better medication (Aducanumab) entry against Alzheimer's disease (3 Jan), a review supports the efficacy of exercise against depression (15 Jan), an available blood test to detect Alzheimer's disease with high accuracy using p-tau217 (22 Jan), one of two small-trialed gene therapies against DFNB9-deafness (24 Jan), phase 3-trialed dengue vaccine effective against at least two of four dengue types (31 Jan) Hazard research is published: ~240.000 particles of microplastic and nanoplastics (~90%) per liter are found in samples of plastic-bottled water (8 Jan), a study estimates harmful chemicals used in plastic materials have caused $249 billion U.S. healthcare system costs in 2018 (11 Jan), a study indicates fungal infections may be causing millions more deaths annually than thought (12 Jan), a study of European plastic waste exports to Vietnam finds a large fraction is dumped in nature and suggests air pollution from melting plastics and untreated wastewater have significant impact on health (18 Jan).

10 February – An analysis of Outer London's Mini-Hollands active transport infrastructures indicates Low Traffic Neighbourhoods are highly effective and cost-efficient measures in terms of health economic benefits. 12 February – The first detection of water molecules on the surface of asteroids is announced, following spectral analysis of 7 Iris and 20 Massalia, two large main-belt objects.

14 February – A study reviews educational content of 18,400 universities worldwide, finding higher education is not transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy curricula, failing to meet the growing demand for a clean energy workforce. On 26 February, a study analyzing funding sources and activities of two prominent academic centers delineates animal agriculture industry entrenchment in academia through support of industry-supported research and policy advocacy amid potential unfavorable policies.

17 February – A global review of harms from personal car automobility finds cars have killed 60–80 million people since their invention, with automobility causing roughly every 34th death, and summarises interventions that are ready for implementation to reduce the, largely crash-linked or pollution-mediated, deaths from automobility-centrism and dependency. 19 February Astronomers announce the most luminous object ever discovered, quasar QSO J0529-4351, located 12 billion light-years away in the constellation Pictor. Researchers with the University of Tennessee and University of Missouri publish an academic study about how survivors from the 2011 Joplin tornado recover from "Tornado Brain", a new term for the PTSD of tornado survivors. 20 February – The northern green anaconda (Eunectes akayima), a new species of the giant snake, is described for the first time. 21 February Researchers use artificial intelligence to forecast plasma instabilities in fusion reactors up to 300 milliseconds in advance. The first neuroimaging study that shows flow state-related brain activity during a creative production task, jazz improvisation, is published. Its results support a theory that creative flow represents optimized specialized processing enabled by extensive experience, relaxing conscious control.

22 February – American company Intuitive Machines' Nova-C lander, named Odysseus, becomes the first commercial vehicle to land on the Moon in the IM-1 mission. The lander includes a Lunar Library that contains a version of the English Wikipedia, artworks, selections from the Internet Archive, portions of the Project Gutenberg, and more. It is projected to reside on the Moon in a readable state for billions of years. 23 February Researchers report studies that, for the first time, measured gravity at microscopic levels. Three new moons of the Solar System are discovered, one around Uranus and two around Neptune, bringing their total known satellites to 28 and 16, respectively. 26 February – A small trial suggests prebiotic resistant starch, contained in many foods, can help in weight loss (~2.8 kg in 8 weeks). 28 February A study links ultra-processed foods to 32 negative health impacts, including a higher risk of heart disease, cancer, type 2 diabetes, adverse mental health, and early death. A study reconstructs the genetic event of tail-loss in human ancestors around 25 million years ago. Promising innovations relating to global challenges are reported: LAION releases a first version of BUD-E, a fully open source voice assistant (8 Feb), Minesto's Dragon 12 underwater tidal kite turbines are demonstrated successfully, connected to the Faroe Island's power grid (11 Feb), rice grains as scaffolds containing cultured animal cells are demonstrated (14 Feb), an automatic waste sorting system (ZenRobotics 4.0) that can distinguish between over 500 waste categories is released (15 Feb), researchers describe an AI ecosystem interface of foundation models connected to many APIs as specialized subtask-solvers (16 Feb), precision fermentation-derived beta-lactoglobulin is released as a substitute for whey protein amid growth of a nascent animal-free dairy industry (19 Feb), researchers describe an approach for an optical disk with petabit capacity (21 Feb). Promising results of health and medical research are reported: phase 3-trialed R21/Matrix-M vaccine against Malaria (1 Feb), phase 3-trialed resmetirom as first medication against nonalcoholic steatohepatitis of the liver (7 Feb), a blood test against heart attacks, the top cause of human deaths (12 Feb), a low-cost saliva test against breast cancer (13 Feb), pigs-tested patient repositioning method for magnetic microbot navigation against liver cancer (14 Feb), antibiotic cresomycin against multiple drug-resistant bacterial strains (15 Feb), small-trialed 15 min exposure to 670 nm red light against blood glucose spikes following meals (20 Feb), small-trialed Omalizumab against food allergies (25 Feb), a donor heart is transplanted after 12 hours of preservation and transport using an airplane, small-trialed headgear for gamma stimulation to recruit the glymphatic system to remove brain amyloid against Alzheimer's disease (28 Feb). Hazard research is published: several dietary habits and products including teabags are linked to PFAS intake (4 Feb), an additional three billion people may face water scarcity by 2050 when river pollution is considered, an aspect neglected by prior assessments (6 Feb), HPV infection linked to higher cardiovascular mortality (7 Feb), researchers use simulations to develop an early-warning signal for a potential collapse of the atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) and suggest it indicates the AMOC is "on route to tipping" (9 Feb), researchers report the H5N1 bird flu virus may be changing and adapting to infect more mammals (12 Feb), researchers report how compounding disturbances could trigger unexpected ecosystem transitions in the Amazon rainforest (14 Feb), harmful chlormequat is found in ~80% of U.S. adult urine samples, rising during 2023, and in oat-based foods widely thought to be healthy (15 Feb), excess amounts of widely-supplemented niacin (B3) are linked to cardiovascular risk (19 Feb), a review concludes available evidence on the use of puberty blockers and cross-sex hormones in minors with gender dysphoria is very limited and based on only a few studies with small numbers which have problematic methodology and quality, warning about their use outside of clinical studies or research projects after careful risk-benefit evaluation (27 Feb).

14 March – SpaceX successfully launches the Starship spacecraft, but loses the rocket upon re-entering the atmosphere. 19 March Scientists demonstrate a wireless network of 78 tiny sensors able to gather data from the brain, with potential to be scaled up to thousands of such devices. Researchers with the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Storm Prediction Center, CIWRO, and the University of Oklahoma's School of Meteorology publish a paper where they state, ">20% of supercell tornadoes may be capable of producing EF4–EF5 damage" and that "the legacy F-scale wind speed ranges may ultimately provide a better estimate of peak tornado wind speeds at 10–15 m AGL for strong–violent tornadoes and a better damage-based intensity rating for all tornadoes" and also put the general 0–5 ranking scale in question. 20 March – The removal of HIV from infected cells using CRISPR gene editing technology is reported. 26 March – A study outlines identified ecological pandemic prevention measures for policy frameworks.

27 March The Event Horizon Telescope team confirms that strong magnetic fields are spiralling at the edge of the Milky Way's central black hole, Sagittarius A*. A new image released by the team, similar to M87*, suggests that strong magnetic fields may be common to all black holes. A study calculates the production costs of diabetes medications such as insulin and ozempic and finds them to be much lower than market prices. 28 March – LHS 3844 b is confirmed as the first tidally locked super-Earth exoplanet. Promising innovations relating to global challenges are reported: researchers demonstrate simultaneous radiative cooling and solar power generation from the same area (13 Mar). Promising results of health and medical research are reported: a blood test against colon cancer (13 Mar), mice-tested antibody-mediated depletion of myeloid-biased hematopoietic stem cells against immune system aging (27 Mar). Hazard research is published: a small trial links micro- and nanoplastics in carotid artery plaque to higher cardio and mortality risks (6 Mar), U.S. land area of ~1200 km² is threatened by coastal subsidence by 2050 due to sea level rise (6 Mar), an EEA risk assessment finds Europe underprepared for climate risks across five broad clusters (11 Mar), a preprint trial suggests large language models could be used for tailored manipulation, being more persuasive than humans when using personal information (21 Mar).

3 April – NASA selects three companies – Intuitive Machines, Lunar Outpost and Venturi Astrolab – to develop its Lunar Terrain Vehicle, for use in crewed Artemis missions from 2030 onwards. 4 April A study in Nature finds that global CO2 emissions increased by only 0.1% in 2023, suggesting that a plateau may have been reached. The Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI) project releases multiple papers which report unprecedented measurements of dark energy, find indications that dark energy which is expanding the Universe is evolving over time, and release the most detailed largest 3D cosmic map to date. 5 April – A numerical toolkit designed for modelling warp drive spacetimes is introduced in Classical and Quantum Gravity. 9 April – A rare genetic variation in a gene that makes fibronectin is shown to reduce the odds of developing Alzheimer's disease by over 70%. 11 April – The first nitrogen-fixing organelle in a marine alga is reported, the nitroplast. The early evolutionary stage organelle provides a view into the transition from an endosymbiont into a proper organelle that receives about half of its proteins from the alga. 12 April Biologists report that bonobos behave more aggressively than thought earlier. Scientists describe how tardigrades are protecting themselves from large radiation exposure and damage, which is quickly repaired, using the Dsup protein. 15 April The NOAA confirms a fourth global coral bleaching event. The world's first commercial-scale factory producing sustainable high-protein food from air, microbes and solar energy, Solein, launches. 16 April – Scientists at the Riken institute demonstrate "advanced dual-chirped optical parametric amplification", which provides a 50-fold increase in the energy of single-cycle laser pulses. This new technique may advance the development of attosecond lasers. 23 April – The world's largest 3D printer, dubbed Factory of the Future 1.0 (FoF 1.0), is presented by the University of Maine. Using thermoplastic polymers, the machine can print objects as large as 96 feet (29 m) long by 32 feet (9.8 m) wide by 18 feet (5.5 m) high, at a rate of 500 pounds (230 kg) per hour. 24 April – Demonstration of synthetic diamond created at 1 atmosphere of pressure in around 150 minutes without needing seeds. 25 April – The first meta-analysis of 665 trials of conservation action such as invasive species control measuring biodiversity is published. 26 April – mRNA-4157/V940, the first personalised melanoma vaccine based on mRNA, enters a final-stage Phase III trial. 29 April Timothy A. Coleman, with the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Richard L. Thompson with the NOAA Storm Prediction Center, and Dr. Gregory S. Forbes, a retired meteorologist from The Weather Channel publish an article to the Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology stating, "it is apparent that the perceived shift in tornado activity from the traditional tornado alley in the Great Plains to the eastern U.S. is indeed real". Physicists outline how a subluminal warp drive that does not require exotic negative energy may be possible. Promising results of health and medical research are reported: phase 2-trialed GLP-1 receptor agonist diabetes 2 drug lixisenatide against (early) Parkinson's disease motor disability (3 April).

Hazard research is published: a study assesses the global extent of PFAS contamination of surface waters and groundwaters, finding many samples exceed PFAS drinking water guidance values and a "need to better understand the use, fate and impacts of anthropogenic chemicals" (8 April), a study estimates how much inorganic carbon soils store globally and projects that they would emit 23 billion tons over the next 30 years in a business-as-usual scenario (11 April), a study of satellite data suggests because of city subsidence and sea-level rise, by 2120, 22 to 26% of China's coastal lands will be below sea level, hosting 9 to 11% of the coastal population (18 April), a study suggests vitamin D deficiency may be a determinant of cancer immunity and immunotherapy success (25 April), and researchers report H5N1 bird flu was found in raw milk (29 April).

9 May A record annual increase in atmospheric CO2 is reported from the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii, with a jump of 4.7 parts per million (ppm) compared to a year earlier. A cubic millimetre of the human brain is mapped at nanoscale resolution by a team at Google. This contains roughly 57,000 cells and 150 million synapses, incorporating 1.4 petabytes of data. A study in Physical Review Letters concludes that the black hole in VFTS 243 likely formed instantaneously, with energy mainly expelled via neutrinos. This means it would have skipped the supernova stage entirely. An analysis of ocean protection for the global conservation target to protect at least 30% of the ocean by 2030 (30 by 30), finds around a quarter of marine protected area (MPA) coverage is not implemented, and one-third is incompatible with the conservation of nature due to the occurrence of highly destructive activities. According to the study, indicators of MPA quality, not only coverage, are needed.

On 11 June, a study finds MPAs' effectiveness is not determined by any specific governance approaches or incentives, but the combination of many different integrated incentives. 10 May – A series of solar storms and intense solar flares impact the Earth, creating aurorae at more southerly and northerly latitudes than usual. 13 May – OpenAI reveals GPT-4o, its latest AI model, featuring improved multimodal capabilities in real time. 15 May Astronomers report an overview of preliminary analytical studies on returned samples of asteroid 101955 Bennu by the OSIRIS-REx mission. SPECULOOS-3 b, an exoplanet nearly identical in size to Earth, is discovered orbiting an ultracool dwarf star as small as Jupiter and located 55 light-years from Earth. Solar energy is combined with synthetic quartz to generate temperatures of more than 1,000°C. This proof-of-concept method shows the potential of clean energy to replace fossil fuels in heavy manufacturing, according to a research team at ETH Zurich. 16 May – A multimodal algorithm for improved sarcasm detection is revealed. Trained on a database known as MUStARD, it can examine multiple aspects of audio recordings and has 75% accuracy. 17 May – The world's smallest quantum light detector on a silicon chip is demonstrated, 50 times smaller than their previous version. 20 May – The first measurements of an exoplanet's core mass are obtained by the James Webb Space Telescope. This reveals a surprisingly low amount of methane and a super-sized core within the super-Neptune WASP-107b. 23 May New images from the Euclid space telescope are published, including a view of the Messier 78 star nursery. Astronomers using TESS report the discovery of Gliese 12 b, a Venus-sized exoplanet located 40 light-years away, with an equilibrium temperature of 315 K (42 °C; 107 °F). This makes it the nearest, transiting, temperate, Earth-sized world located to date. A team shows that iron instead of cobalt and nickel can be used as a cathode material in lithium-ion batteries, improving both safety and sustainability. 24 May – Researchers from the Chinese Academy of Sciences report tuning of the Casimir effect using magnetic fields. 30 May – NASA reports that the James Webb Space Telescope has discovered JADES-GS-z14-0, the most distant known galaxy, which existed only 290 million years after the Big Bang. Its redshift of 14.32 exceeds the previous record of 13.2, set by JADES-GS-z13-0. 31 May – Biologists report that Tmesipteris oblanceolata, a fern ally plant, was found to contain the largest known genome. Promising results of health and medical research are reported: a mRNA vaccine-like immunotherapy against brain cancer tested in a preliminary small trial (1 May), ferrets-tested mRNA vaccine against the clade 2.3.4.4b H5 bird flu amid concerning developments of the 2020–2025 H5N1 outbreak (23 May), mice-tested antibiotic lolamicin specific to Gram-negative bacteria that spares the gut microbiome (29 May). Hazard research is published: researchers report gas stoves disperse nitrogen dioxide – associated with respiratory conditions such as asthma – at unsafe levels also outside kitchens for hours (3 May), a study reported large amounts of microplastic in brains with concentrations being much larger in samples from 2024 compared to 2016 (6 May), an experimental study finds GPT-4-based large language model-powered conversational search increases selective exposure compared to conventional Web search (11 May), a study indicates fish oil omega-3 supplements, widely taken due to associations of high omega-3 levels and good health or cognition, might be a substantial risk factor for atrial fibrillation and stroke except for those who took these already having atrial fibrillation (21 May), and researchers report continued transmission of bird flu within dairy cattle and show that their raw milk can infect mice (24 May).

5 December – A single mutation known as Q226L is found to enhance the ability of H5N1 ('bird flu') to infect human cells, particularly in the respiratory tract. Previously, at least three mutations were thought to be required for the virus to infect people and spread between them. 7 December – A study in The Lancet finds that life expectancy progress in the United States is slowing. Only modest increases are likely by 2050, as the country falls below nearly all high-income and some middle-income countries in the global rankings. 9 December – Astronomers report using the infrared capabilities of the James Webb Space Telescope to find 100 of the smallest asteroids ever detected in the main belt, some measuring just 10 metres in diameter. 10 December – AI-based transfer learning predicts that global warming will reach 3°C faster than previously expected. 13 December – A new light-induced gene therapy using nanoparticles to target the mitochondria of cancer cells is demonstrated. 16 December – The China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation (CASC) launches the first batch of the Guowang (Xingwang) megaconstellation, a planned constellation of 13,000 satellites using a Long March 5 rocket at the Wenchang Space Launch Site. 17 December – Zhúlóng ("Torch Dragon"), discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope, is reported as being the most distant known spiral galaxy ever found, seen as it appeared just 1.1 billion years after the Big Bang. 20 December – A study published in Optica reports the first demonstration of quantum teleportation over fibers carrying conventional telecommunications traffic. 22 December – Researchers in South Korea demonstrate a way to revert cancer cells back to normal, healthy cells, using simulations to identify "master molecular switches" involved in cell differentiation. 24 December – The Parker Solar Probe breaks the previous record set in 2018 for the closest artificial object to the Sun by 6.1 million kilometers (3.8 million miles). 27 December A new technique for lifelike facial expressions on androids is reported by Osaka University, using waveform movements to dynamically express mood states, such as "excited" or "sleepy". Carbon in outer space is shown to travel on a circumgalactic medium, resembling a series of giant conveyor belts, which can extend beyond our galaxy and up to 400,000 light-years in length.

2024 in spaceflight Category:Science events Category:Science timelines List of emerging technologies List of years in science This glossary of artificial intelligence is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to the study of artificial intelligence (AI), its subdisciplines, and related fields. Related glossaries include Glossary of computer science, Glossary of robotics, Glossary of machine vision, and Glossary of logic.

A* search Pronounced "A-star".A graph traversal and pathfinding algorithm which is used in many fields of computer science due to its completeness, optimality, and optimal efficiency. abductive logic programming (ALP) A high-level knowledge-representation framework that can be used to solve problems declaratively based on abductive reasoning. It extends normal logic programming by allowing some predicates to be incompletely defined, declared as abducible predicates.

abductive reasoning Also abduction.A form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation. This process, unlike deductive reasoning, yields a plausible conclusion but does not positively verify it. abductive inference, or retroduction ablation The removal of a component of an AI system. An ablation study aims to determine the contribution of a component to an AI system by removing the component, and then analyzing the resultant performance of the system.

abstract data type A mathematical model for data types, where a data type is defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. 3. Software Implementation, Frameworks & Protocols abstraction The process of removing physical, spatial, or temporal details or attributes in the study of objects or systems in order to more closely attend to other details of interest accelerating change A perceived increase in the rate of technological change throughout history, which may suggest faster and more profound change in the future and may or may not be accompanied by equally profound social and cultural change.

action language A language for specifying state transition systems, and is commonly used to create formal models of the effects of actions on the world. Action languages are commonly used in the artificial intelligence and robotics domains, where they describe how actions affect the states of systems over time, and may be used for automated planning. action model learning An area of machine learning concerned with creation and modification of software agent's knowledge about effects and preconditions of the actions that can be executed within its environment. This knowledge is usually represented in logic-based action description language and used as the input for automated planners.

action selection A way of characterizing the most basic problem of intelligent systems: what to do next. In artificial intelligence and computational cognitive science, "the action selection problem" is typically associated with intelligent agents and animats—artificial systems that exhibit complex behaviour in an agent environment. activation function In artificial neural networks, the activation function of a node defines the output of that node given an input or set of inputs.

adaptive algorithm An algorithm that changes its behavior at the time it is run, based on a priori defined reward mechanism or criterion. adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) Also adaptive network-based fuzzy inference system.A kind of artificial neural network that is based on Takagi–Sugeno fuzzy inference system. The technique was developed in the early 1990s. Since it integrates both neural networks and fuzzy logic principles, it has potential to capture the benefits of both in a single framework. Its inference system corresponds to a set of fuzzy IF–THEN rules that have learning capability to approximate nonlinear functions. Hence, ANFIS is considered to be a universal estimator. For using the ANFIS in a more efficient and optimal way, one can use the best parameters obtained by genetic algorithm. admissible heuristic In computer science, specifically in algorithms related to pathfinding, a heuristic function is said to be admissible if it never overestimates the cost of reaching the goal, i.e. the cost it estimates to reach the goal is not higher than the lowest possible cost from the current point in the path.

affective computing Also artificial emotional intelligence or emotion AI.The study and development of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, process, and simulate human affects. Affective computing is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer science, psychology, and cognitive science. agent architecture A blueprint for software agents and intelligent control systems, depicting the arrangement of components. The architectures implemented by intelligent agents are referred to as cognitive architectures.

AI bubble Theorised stock market bubble growing amidst the AI boom, a period of rapid increase in investment in artificial intelligence (AI) that is affecting the broader economy. AI accelerator A class of microprocessor or computer system designed as hardware acceleration for artificial intelligence applications, especially artificial neural networks, machine vision, and machine learning.

AI-complete In the field of artificial intelligence, the most difficult problems are informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard, implying that the difficulty of these computational problems is equivalent to that of solving the central artificial intelligence problem—making computers as intelligent as people, or strong AI. To call a problem AI-complete reflects an attitude that it would not be solved by a simple specific algorithm.

AI data center A specialized data center facility designed for the computationally intensive tasks of training and running inference for artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning models. Unlike general-purpose data centers, they are optimized for the parallel processing demands of AI workloads, typically utilizing hardware such as AI accelerators (e.g., GPUs, TPUs) and high-speed interconnects.

algorithm An unambiguous specification of how to solve a class of problems. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning tasks. Algorithms are fundamental to computer science and are used to solve problems efficiently by defining a sequence of logical steps. algorithmic efficiency A property of an algorithm which relates to the number of computational resources used by the algorithm. An algorithm must be analyzed to determine its resource usage, and the efficiency of an algorithm can be measured based on usage of different resources. Algorithmic efficiency can be thought of as analogous to engineering productivity for a repeating or continuous process.

algorithmic probability In algorithmic information theory, algorithmic probability, also known as Solomonoff probability, is a mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observation. It was invented by Ray Solomonoff in the 1960s. AlphaGo A computer program that plays the board game Go. It was developed by Alphabet Inc.'s Google DeepMind in London. AlphaGo has several versions including AlphaGo Zero, AlphaGo Master, AlphaGo Lee, etc. In October 2015, AlphaGo became the first computer Go program to beat a human professional Go player without handicaps on a full-sized 19×19 board.

4. Practical Deployment, Analysis & Case Studies ambient intelligence Electronic environments that are sensitive and responsive to the presence of people. The concept was pioneered by Philips Research in the early 2000s as a vision for a post-PC era in which computing power would be embedded invisibly into everyday objects and spaces. An AmI environment continuously senses its surroundings, recognises the individuals within it, and adapts its behaviour to their needs, habits, and preferences – without requiring explicit interaction.

Key characteristics of ambient intelligence systems include being embedded (technology woven into the environment rather than foregrounded), context-aware (able to recognise situations and people), personalised (tailored to individual users), adaptive (capable of learning and changing behaviour over time), and anticipatory (proactively responding to needs without conscious instruction).

AmI draws on and overlaps with related fields including ubiquitous computing, pervasive computing, the Internet of Things (IoT), and affective computing. Practical applications include smart home systems, intelligent transport, assisted-living technologies for elderly or disabled users, and responsive public spaces. analysis of algorithms The determination of the computational complexity of algorithms, that is the amount of time, storage and/or other resources necessary to execute them. Usually, this involves determining a function that relates the length of an algorithm's input to the number of steps it takes (its time complexity) or the number of storage locations it uses (its space complexity).

analytics The discovery, interpretation, and communication of meaningful patterns in data. It includes descriptive analytics(what it happen?), diagnostic analytics(Why it happen?), predictive analytics(using the model to predict the result in the future.) and prescriptive analytics(giving suggestions according to the prediction). answer set programming (ASP) A form of declarative programming oriented towards difficult (primarily NP-hard) search problems. It is based on the stable model (answer set) semantics of logic programming. In ASP, search problems are reduced to computing stable models, and answer set solvers—programs for generating stable models—are used to perform search.

ant colony optimization (ACO) A probabilistic technique for solving computational problems that can be reduced to finding good paths through graphs. anytime algorithm An algorithm that can return a valid solution to a problem even if it is interrupted before it ends. application programming interface (API) A set of subroutine definitions, communication protocols, and tools for building software. In general terms, it is a set of clearly defined methods of communication among various components. A good API makes it easier to develop a computer program by providing all the building blocks, which are then put together by the programmer. An API may be for a web-based system, operating system, database system, computer hardware, or software library. APIs are widely used in modern web development to enable applications to exchange data in real time.

approximate string matching Also fuzzy string searching.The technique of finding strings that match a pattern approximately (rather than exactly). The problem of approximate string matching is typically divided into two sub-problems: finding approximate substring matches inside a given string and finding dictionary strings that match the pattern approximately. approximation error The discrepancy between an exact value and some approximation to it.

argumentation framework Also argumentation system.A way to deal with contentious information and draw conclusions from it. In an abstract argumentation framework, entry-level information is a set of abstract arguments that, for instance, represent data or a proposition. Conflicts between arguments are represented by a binary relation on the set of arguments. In concrete terms, you represent an argumentation framework with a directed graph such that the nodes are the arguments, and the arrows represent the attack relation. There exist some extensions of the Dung's framework, like the logic-based argumentation frameworks or the value-based argumentation frameworks. artificial general intelligence (AGI) A type of AI that matches or surpasses human cognitive capabilities across a wide range of cognitive tasks.

artificial immune system (AIS) A class of computationally intelligent, rule-based machine learning systems inspired by the principles and processes of the vertebrate immune system. The algorithms are typically modeled after the immune system's characteristics of learning and memory for use in problem-solving. artificial intelligence (AI) Also machine intelligence.Any intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. In computer science, AI research is defined as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals. Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is applied when a machine mimics "cognitive" functions that humans associate with other human minds, such as "learning" and "problem solving". artificial intelligence arms race economic and sometimes military competition between two or more states to develop and deploy advanced AI technologies and lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS).

Artificial Intelligence Markup Language An XML dialect for creating natural language software agents. Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) An international, nonprofit, scientific society devoted to promote research in, and responsible use of, artificial intelligence. AAAI also aims to increase public understanding of artificial intelligence (AI), improve the teaching and training of AI practitioners, and provide guidance for research planners and funders concerning the importance and potential of current AI developments and future directions.

asymptotic computational complexity In computational complexity theory, asymptotic computational complexity is the usage of asymptotic analysis for the estimation of computational complexity of algorithms and computational problems, commonly associated with the usage of the big O notation. attention mechanism Machine learning-based attention is a mechanism mimicking cognitive attention. It calculates "soft" weights for each word, more precisely for its embedding, in the context window. It can do it either in parallel (such as in transformers) or sequentially (such as in recursive neural networks). "Soft" weights can change during each runtime, in contrast to "hard" weights, which are (pre-)trained and fine-tuned and remain frozen afterwards. Multiple attention heads are used in transformer-based large language models.

5. Performance Evaluation & Extended Technical Observations attributional calculus A logic and representation system defined by Ryszard S. Michalski. It combines elements of predicate logic, propositional calculus, and multi-valued logic. Attributional calculus provides a formal language for natural induction, an inductive learning process whose results are in forms natural to people.

An interactive experience of a real-world environment where the objects that reside in the real-world are "augmented" by computer-generated perceptual information, sometimes across multiple sensory modalities, including visual, auditory, haptic, somatosensory, and olfactory. autoencoder A type of artificial neural network used to learn efficient codings of unlabeled data (unsupervised learning). A common implementation is the variational autoencoder (VAE).

automata theory The study of abstract machines and automata, as well as the computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical computer science and discrete mathematics (a subject of study in both mathematics and computer science). automated machine learning (AutoML) A field of machine learning (ML) which aims to automatically configure an ML system to maximize its performance (e.g, classification accuracy).

automated planning and scheduling Also simply AI planning.A branch of artificial intelligence that concerns the realization of strategies or action sequences, typically for execution by intelligent agents, autonomous robots and unmanned vehicles. Unlike classical control and classification problems, the solutions are complex and must be discovered and optimized in multidimensional space. Planning is also related to decision theory. automated reasoning An area of computer science and mathematical logic dedicated to understanding different aspects of reasoning. The study of automated reasoning helps produce computer programs that allow computers to reason completely, or nearly completely, automatically. Although automated reasoning is considered a sub-field of artificial intelligence, it also has connections with theoretical computer science, and even philosophy.

autonomic computing (AC) The self-managing characteristics of distributed computing resources, adapting to unpredictable changes while hiding intrinsic complexity to operators and users. Initiated by IBM in 2001, this initiative ultimately aimed to develop computer systems capable of self-management, to overcome the rapidly growing complexity of computing systems management, and to reduce the barrier that complexity poses to further growth.

autonomous car Also self-driving car, robot car, and driverless car.A vehicle that is capable of sensing its environment and moving with little or no human input. Autonomous cars rely on a combination of sensors, machine learning algorithms, and real-time data processing to navigate environments and make driving decisions without human input. autonomous robot A robot that performs behaviors or tasks with a high degree of autonomy. Autonomous robotics is usually considered to be a subfield of artificial intelligence, robotics, and information engineering.

backpropagation A method used to train artificial neural networksby propagating error gradients backward Backpropagation is shorthand for "the backward propagation of errors", since an error is computed at the output and distributed backwards throughout the network's layers. It is commonly used to train deep neural networks, a term referring to neural networks with more than one hidden layer.

backpropagation through structure (BPTS) A gradient-based technique for training recurrent neural networks, proposed in a 1996 paper written by Christoph Goller and Andreas Küchler. backpropagation through time (BPTT) A gradient-based technique for training certain types of recurrent neural networks, such as Elman networks. The algorithm was independently derived by numerous researchers.

backward chaining Also backward reasoning.An inference method described colloquially as working backward from the goal. It is used in automated theorem provers, inference engines, proof assistants, and other artificial intelligence applications. bag-of-words model A simplifying representation used in natural language processing and information retrieval (IR). In this model, a text (such as a sentence or a document) is represented as the bag (multiset) of its words, disregarding grammar and even word order but keeping multiplicity. The bag-of-words model has also been used for computer vision. The bag-of-words model is commonly used in methods of document classification where the (frequency of) occurrence of each word is used as a feature for training a classifier.

bag-of-words model in computer vision In computer vision, the bag-of-words model (BoW model) can be applied to image classification, by treating image features as words. In document classification, a bag of words is a sparse vector of occurrence counts of words; that is, a sparse histogram over the vocabulary. In computer vision, a bag of visual words is a vector of occurrence counts of a vocabulary of local image features.

batch normalization A technique for improving the performance and stability of artificial neural networks. It is a technique to provide any layer in a neural network with inputs that are zero mean/unit variance. Batch normalization was introduced in a 2015 paper. It is used to normalize the input layer by adjusting and scaling the activations. Bayesian programming A formalism and a methodology for having a technique to specify probabilistic models and solve problems when less than the necessary information is available.

bees algorithm A population-based search algorithm which was developed by Pham, Ghanbarzadeh and et al. in 2005. It mimics the food foraging behaviour of honey bee colonies. In its basic version the algorithm performs a kind of neighborhood search combined with global search, and can be used for both combinatorial optimization and continuous optimization. The only condition for the application of the bees algorithm is that some measure of distance between the solutions is defined. The effectiveness and specific abilities of the bees algorithm have been proven in a number of studies.

behavior informatics (BI) The informatics of behaviors so as to obtain behavior intelligence and behavior insights. Harvested Online Documentation & Reference Sources • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video%20games%20and%20Linux • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024%20in%20science • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20artificial%20intelligence