International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive Systems (IJPEDS)
Journal Homepage: Http://Ijpeds.Iaescore.Com
Analysis and implementation of peak armature current (Imax)
Of A Chopper-Fed Dc-Dc Motor Drive In Dcm
Mohamad Nazir Abdullah, Muhammad Hafeez Mohamed Hariri, Mohd Khairunaz Mat Desa,
Mohd Nadzri Mamat, Suardi Kaharuddin
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Nibong Tebal, Malaysia
Accepted Oct 23, 2024
At low frequencies of operation in a chopper-fed direct current (DC) motor drive, the armature current may become discontinuous thus the controller operates in discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). Since the minimum armature current is zero in DCM, the analysis of peak armature current (Imax) is to investigate the ripple content in armature current at different values of duty cycle which will help in decreasing the peaky current of DC motor during operation. The simulation was carried out using MATLAB-Simulink software and the laboratory setup was based on Atmega 328 microcontroller board. In this paper, the theoretical and experimental analysis of peak armature current were performed at fix low frequency in DCM and variable duty cycles to provide full control of DC motor speed. The results show that the peak armature current changes with the change of duty cycles and its magnitude is decreased almost 50% at higher duty cycle values.
Discontinuous Current Mode
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Muhammad Hafeez Mohamed Hariri
School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)
Nibong Tebal, 14300, Penang, Malaysia
1.
Introduction
Direct current (DC) motor drives can be categorized into two main topologies depending on the type of input source. The topologies are phase controlled DC motor drive and chopper-fed DC motor drive as shown in Figure 1. In phase controlled either AC motor or DC motor drives, the input supply is alternating current (AC) single or three phase sources . The controller is a bridge thyristor-based rectifier AC to DC converter which converts the AC input into a controllable variable output DC as illustrated in Figure 1(a). The speed control is obtained by controlling the firing angle of the thyristor that varies the mean value of the rectified voltage , . The disadvantages of using this topology is it produces high ripple in the output voltage and high pulsating armature current and lead to the heating of DC motor . Another point is poor power factor on the AC side in phase control need to be taken into consideration while using this topology.
In chopper-fed DC-DC motor drive shown in Figure 1(b), the power conversion is only working in DC when the input supply is DC power source or batteries. The speed control is obtained by controlling the duty cycle triggered to the gate of the switch at certain switching frequency and the variable converter’s output voltage is obtained -. This topology provides significant advantages like low output voltage ripple, low pulsating armature current and great efficiency . The armature current of circuit presented in Figure 1(b) can be analyzed based on continuous conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM) modes . There are several factors which may lead the converter to operate in CCM or DCM. The operation of the converter in a chopper-fed DC motor drive is in CCM or DCM depends on the motor resistance Ra, motor inductance La, duty cycle k and chopper’s switching frequency, fs.
Analysis and implementation of peak armature current (Imax) of a chopper- … (Mohamad Nazir Abdullah)
(B)
Figure 1. AC-DC motor drive system: (a) phase-controlled DC motor drive and
(B) Chopper-Fed Dc Motor Drive
In many applications, CCM is employed. When designing a converter with a priority given to reduce the output ripple voltage, CCM is used. In CCM, the value of the armature current of the converter is always positive and varies between minimum and maximum values. Unlike in CCM, the value of the armature current changes between zero level and a positive value in DCM at a certain period of time. At light load (small motor current), operating the converter at high frequency in CCM may increase the switching losses of MOSFET thus reducing the efficiency of the converter. This is a common drawback to chopper-fed DC motor drive systems. In order to improve the efficiency of light load applications, DCM is generally applied. However, the peak armature current is the main issue since it becomes large in DCM mode. If we consider the switching frequency of the chopper is low frequency and the armature inductance of the DC motor, La is too small, the armature current will be operating in DCM . The DCM mode usually occurs in converters which consist of the single-quadrant switch with a freewheeling diode and may also occur in converters with two-quadrant switches. In converters of the single-quadrant switch with another switch to replace the freewheeling diode like in a synchronous rectifier, the converter efficiency may be increased and DCM mode can be avoided. Many converters are developed for applications in DC motor drives in order to improve higher efficiency and smaller size or volume, where high switching frequencies can be applied to the converters , .
The LLC-LC resonant converter fed permanent magnet direct current or PMDC motor which was proposed in was more efficient with a smaller gap switching frequency range for a wide range of load variation applications. Similarly, a paper in suggested a three-phase series-parallel resonant converter-fed DC-dive system that has zero switching losses at higher switching frequencies. The research done by uses four-quadrant zero current transition (ZCT) converter-fed DC motor drives for electric propulsion which has advantages in reducing switching stress at zero current switching. Modeling and simulation of AC-DC buck- boost converter fed DC motor with uniform pulse width modulation (PWM) technique was implemented in to suit as a front-end power source in variable speed drive system. Many papers in the literature review have discussed their study in CCM and DCM. In , a characterized control of a four-quadrant DC-DC converter operating CCM and DCM was developed to limit the input current. A new modeling method based on proportional calculus and linear constraints for Boost converter in CCM and DCM was proposed in while the paper in has presented and validated the comparison of efficiencies of junction field effect transistor (JFET) and insulated-gate bipolar transistor IGBT for full bridge converter operated under CCM and DCM. A power loss analysis of active clamp forward converter in CCM and DCM was presented in to increase the efficiency of light load applications. In terms of speed control, there are several papers have presented their study. A separate DC motor speed controller based on four-quadrant choppers was presented in . This includes a four-quadrant operation of a DC motor with a digital control strategy which was proposed in while the paper in investigated a comparative and robustness analysis of closed-loop speed control for four-quadrant choppers. A detailed analysis on DC choppers and speed control techniques was performed in to study their performance.
This paper also examines the armature current of a chopper-fed DC motor in CCM and DCM modes. In section 2, the first quadrant DC chopper design is proposed and the mathematical model is presented. The specific analysis on the armature current of the converter in CCM and DCM is also presented. In section 3, the calculation and simulation of the peak armature current of the converter in DCM are shown. The experimental prototype and verified results are described in section 4. The paper is concluded in section 5.
2.
Chopper-Fed Dc Motor Drive
A DC chopper or commonly known as a DC-DC converter is a driver that changes fix DC input voltage to a certain value of DC output voltage. A chopper-fed DC motor drive uses a power electronic switch, typically a thyristor or transistor, to regulate the voltage supplied to a DC motor by rapidly turning the supply on and off. DC motor is widely used in adjustable speed drive and position control of applications like rapid transit systems, robotic drives, pedal-assisted bicycles, trolley cars, and traction motor control -.
2.1. Buck Dc Chopper Design
A first quadrant chopper-fed DC motor drive based on a buck converter is drawn in Figure 2. In this circuit, the DC motor is equivalent to the combination of an internal resistance Ra, an internal inductance La in series with back EMF voltage E . The buck converter comprises a fast recovery diode D1 and an active switch SW1 in series with a DC input supply VD.
The DC input supply is applied to the DC motor when the switch is ON. The current is conducted from the source to the internal winding of the DC motor. In the first quadrant DC chopper, the motor (armature) current Ia of the DC motor is in one direction and the polarity of the terminal output voltage or known as motor (armature) voltage Va cannot be reversed. When the chopper is OFF, the DC input supply is disconnected from the DC motor.
The energy is stored in the internal inductance and the back EMF of the motor drives the internal current through a fast recovery diode. This condition is valid for CCM only. Both the internal current and the motor voltage will be always positive. The motor voltage however can be controlled from zero to the maximum rated voltage by altering the duty cycle of the switch. This makes a DC motor controllable over a wide range of speeds.
2.2. Modelling Of Dc Chopper
Generally, a model of a DC chopper can be developed using the operation modes and current conduction modes of the converter. There are three operation modes have been considered for the converter over a full switching cycle and these modes are illustrated in Figures 3(a)-3(c). The state variables will describe the dynamic behavior of a chopper-fed DC motor based on the switching states of SW1 and the diode D1.
Considering the waveform characteristic of armature current conducted through the DC motor, the model will be derived based on the current conduction modes of the converter in CCM and DCM. The gate switching voltage for switch Vg, the motor voltage Va, and the motor current Ia waveforms of chopper-fed DC motor in CCM and DCM are shown in Figures 4(a) and 4(b), where Imax and Imin are the maximum values and minimum value of the motor current respectively.
Figure 2. Buck converter DC motor drive with first quadrant operation
(C)
Figure 3. Operating modes of chopper-fed DC motor: (a) Mode 1: SW1 ON, D1 OFF, (b) Mode 2: SW1 OFF, D1 ON, and (c) Mode 3: SW1 OFF, D1 OFF
(B)
Figure 4. Switching state, armature voltage, and armature current: (a) CCM and (b) DCM
99
3.
Simulation Of Peak Dcm Armature Current
In order to analyze the value of peak armature current, a powerful simulation tool software is required. The simulation setup is carried out using the MATLAB/Simulink software. MATLAB/Simulink was chosen because it has powerful and modern features.
3.1. Simulation Results
Through Simulink, the circuit design can be created, and the desired output waveforms can be viewed clearly. In addition, a real-time simulation offered in MATLAB/Simulink is used to predict and characterize the behavior of inputs and outputs in an actual hardware implementation. The simulation circuit model for the chopper-fed DC motor drive is shown in Figure 5. The converter consists of input supply VD, buck subsystem, and output parameters. The subsystem consists of a buck converter and DC motor model. The gating signal Vg is the pulse generated by the duty cycle d and the PWM generator block. The simulation was performed at fixed input voltage and fixed switching frequency. In the simulation, the circuit was assumed to operate in ideal circuit parameters. The simulation was also conducted in no load condition without any load attached to the motor (TL = 0). There is no feedback controller required since the chopper-fed DC motor was operating in the first quadrant, and its speed was determined directly by the duty cycle.
Figure 5. Simulation circuit model in MATLAB/Simulink The input voltage was set to 24 V and the PWM gating signal were varied from minimum 0 to maximum 1. The simulation results for no-load condition are displayed in the following figures. The switching frequency was fixed at 1kHz. The motor voltage, the input current and the motor current waveforms for the simulation circuit are displayed in Figure 6(a) and Figure 6(b) at k = 0.2 and k = 0.4 respectively.
In the above two plots, the motor armature current waveforms show that the chopper-fed DC motor operates in DCM. At the beginning of SW1 ON, the armature current rises up slowly from zero to peak value until it is OFF. The armature current continues to flow in a short time but abruptly drops to zero due to small value of armature inductance existed in DC motor. At the remaining period of time, during the switch is turned OFF, it returns to zero indicating that the converter is running in DCM. In Figures 6(a) and 6(b), by using the peak finder feature in MATLAB/Simulink, the peak armature current waveforms were recorded at 7.60 A when k = 0.2 and at 6.40 A when k = 0.4. The waveforms are shown in the intervals between 11.4765 s to 11.7295 s as the outputs were in a steady state condition during this period.
(B)
Figure 6. Waveforms for chopper-fed DC motor in DCM mode. From top to bottom: Vg, Va, Iin and Ia:
(A) K = 0.2 And (B) K = 0.4
4.
Experimental Validation
Experimental validation involves conducting hardware circuitry tests to verify the performance and accuracy of a proposed prototype. The measured data based on the experimental setup are compared with the expected results to validate its reliability and performance. In practice, the actual switch is realized by using a power MOSFET which can be operated at a high current in several amperes.
4.1. Experimental Setup
The circuit realization of Figure 5 employs a single quadrant switch. The switch only allows the power to flow in one direction, which is from the DC source to the load. Figure 7 shows the experimental setup of chopper-fed DC motor drive system. Experimental work was performed in a laboratory workbench to validate the previous simulation results.
Deployment In Out-Of-Position Situations
D. Bendjaballah1, A. Bouchoucha1, M. L. Sahli1,2* and J-C. Gelin2
Abstract
Side-impact collisions represent the second greatest cause of fatality in motor vehicle accidents. Side-impact airbags have been installed in recent model year vehicle due to its effectiveness in reducing passengers’ injuries and fatality rates. In meeting these requirements, simulations of folding and deploying airbags are very useful and are widely used. The paper presents a simulation method for the deploying airbags using three materials in different working conditions. Finite element analysis is primarily used to evaluate this concept. In these simulations, the gas flow is described by the conservation laws of mass, momentum, and energy. The numerical results indicate that the FE method in this paper is capable of capturing airbag deploying process accurately.
Keywords: Airbag simulations, Out-of-position, Crash, Modeling, Out-of-position
Background
The passive safety of cars has become a very high prior- ity issue for the automotive industry. Today, there are not only one or two airbags in a car; certain models have ten times more than that. With the increasing usage of airbags, the number of accidents where the airbag itself can cause an injury to the occupant also increases
(Augenstein Et Al. 2003; Gabauer And Gabler 2010;
Audrey et al. 2011). As is well known, safety belts are also now devices designed to provide protection to the users of vehicles during crash events, minimizing the loads necessary to adapt their movement to the move- ment of the car (Freesmeier and Butler 1999; Schmitt et al. 1997). In general, the seat belt is designed to restrain the occupant in the vehicle and prevent the
Occupant From Having Harsh Contacts With Interior
surfaces of the vehicles. The airbag acts to cushion any impact with vehicle structure and has positive internal pressure, which can exert distributed restraining forces over the head and face. As a safety component of auto- mobile, an airbag decreases occupants’ injury likelihood effectively in case of an accident (Ruff et al. 2007). These safety elements can reduce the death rates on the roads, and its protection effects have been widely approved (Crandall et al. 2001; Teru and Ishikawa 2003). With computational tools such as finite element methods designed for dynamic contact problems, crashworthiness simulations can now be used with reliable accuracy to evaluate occupant protection in various collision condi- tions with safety metric/parameters such as acceleration, head injury criteria, intrusion distance, intrusion vel- ocity, and neck forces (neck injury risk or whiplash).
Thus, new types of airbag products are being developed to handle different collision scenarios.
Become Standard Equipment On Most New Passenger
vehicles (Braver and Kyrychenko 2004; Teng et al. 2007; Yoganandan et al. 2007). The airbag cushion is com- posed of a woven fabric which is rapidly inflated during a car crash. The airbag dissipates the passenger’s kinetic energy thereby reducing injury through biaxial stretching of the fabric bag and escaping gas through vents. There- fore, the performance of the airbag is greatly influenced by the mechanical properties of the fabric. Generally, air bags are designed to deploy in a crash that is equivalent to a vehicle crashing into a solid wall at 8 to 14 mph.
Air bags most often deploy when a vehicle collides with another vehicle or with a solid object like a tree. There are various types of airbags: frontal, side-impact, and curtain airbags. In general, the passenger side airbags are usually larger than the driver airbags (see Fig. 1).
Besançon, France
© The Author(s). 2017 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
Bendjaballah et al. International Journal of Mechanical
Doi 10.1186/S40712-016-0070-2
Extensive studies have shown that the airbag deploy- ment in load cases consists of two occupant loading phases: a punch-out effect where the airbag bursts out of its container with the airbag and airbag module cover accelerating towards the occupant and a second loading phase during which the airbag is taking on its deployed shape and volume (membrane-loading effect). Bankdak et al. (2002) developed an experimental airbag test system to study airbag-occupant interactions during close proximity deployment. The results provided insight for simulating the effect of inflation energy and mass flow on target response. Bedard et al. (2002) found that while left-side (driver-side) impacts accounted for only 13.5% of all crashes, the fatality rate among these
Crashes Was 68.3% In Comparison To Front Impact
(48.3%), right-side impact (31.3%), and rear impact (38.4%). These studies underscore the importance of oc- cupant safety during side-impact collisions. In the last years, the current market requested to reduce the time and cost airbag development. In order to achieve this result, virtual simulations play an important role since they allow to minimize the number of experimental tests (Pei et al. 2013; Cao et al. 2014). Several simulation models of airbag were established (Wang et al. 2007). It is feasible to optimize the parameters of airbag deploy- ment using simulation technology. Experimental and numerical studies have quantified injury risks to close- proximity occupants from deploying side airbags. These studies have focused on the prevention of the most ad- verse effects of airbag deployment (Duma et al. 2003).
Other studies have proposed airbag characteristics to minimize particular biomechanical responses (Haland and Pipkorn 1996). In a more recent study, Marklund and Nilsson (2003) compared deformation patterns with experimental data as well as the computational costs associated with three different airbag deployment simu- lation methods; they concluded that the SPH method is relatively inexpensive and produces incremental deform- ation patterns that compare most closely to the experi- mental results. The process of inflation of an airbag is one of the determining factors in saving lives. The duration from the initial impact of the crash to the full inflation of an airbag is about 40 ms, and during this time, the airbag goes from being in a folded state to a fully inflated state, with a high internal pressure. After achieving this state, the airbag begins to deflate, thus providing a nice cushion for the body impacting it.
Ideally, the person in the crash should come into contact with the airbag at this time. In the present study, a large volume passenger side airbag model is developed to handle different collision scenarios. The main aim is evaluate the performance of deploying of passenger side airbag using finite element methods (FEM).
Materials
The tensile specimens were made in different airbags (P: Peugeot, R: Renault, and VW: Volkswagen) with a length of 200 mm long and a width of 40 mm. Table 1 shows the mechanical properties of the airbag.
Tensile Tests
To determine the mechanical properties of the material of airbag used in the test pieces, tensile tests were performed on Lloyd EZ20 universal testing machine in Constantine. These tests were conducted using rect- angular samples. The axial force and axial displacement acquired during a test are converted into stress and the strain in order to be used for the fabric material model.
The continuous recording of the stress-strain data was performed during both the load and unload phases. A minimum of five samples were made in order to check the repeatability of the measurements. All the data was collected by using a PC-based data acquisition system and analyzed by commercial software. The picture frame test device that is made for this study is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 1 a Frontal and side airbags. b Oblique view of facet occupant model in sitting posture following airbag deployment (Lim et al. 2014)
0.150
Bendjaballah et al. International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering (2017) 12:12
Page 2 Of 9
Figure 3 shows the stress-strain relationship of the airbag sample under axial tensile loads. The results are showing a linear increase in extension with the increas- ing stresses. This is an expected output and it confirms with the theoretical behavior of a sample subjected to tensile stress. The rupture strain values for different airbags (R/P/VW) were 0.322, 0.441, and 0.472, respect- ively. The measured elastic parameters (i.e., Young’s modulus E and initial yield strength) and Poisson’s ratio are summarized in Table 2. The tensile tests of the woven fabrics can show differences on mechanical prop- erties because woven fabrics can resist in-plane shear loads once the yarn lock-up angle has been reached. The differences of material property on material direction can affect the shape of fully deployed bag (see Fig. 3b).
Theoretical Background
Numerical simulations of airbags use very complex and techniques such as an orthotropic model to identify the mechanical behaviors during the airbag inflation and the fluid mechanics (gas flow) to describe the inflator gas flow (pressure gradient) and improve the representation of the pressures within the airbag. To model the airbag as an orthotropic model, three material constants have to be provided. Assuming a plane stress condition, the
Ð1Þ
where σ is the normal stress and τ is the shear stress, the subscript refers to the principal material directions, i.e., the fill and warp directions. Also, ε and γ are the strain components. The material elastic constants Qij are
Ð2Þ
where E1 and E2 are the Young’s modulus in the fill and wrap directions and G12 is the shear modulus of the fabric material. νij is the Poisson ratio of the material.
The gas exerts a pressure load on the airbag causing it to expand. This expansion puts the airbag under tensile stress lowering the expansion rate. In this study, heat conduction and heat transfer is not taken into account.
Fig. 2 A photograph of Lloyd EZ20 universal testing Fig. 3 Stress versus strain using Lloyd EZ20 machine for a three different airbags at 0° and 90° and b VW airbag test specimens at
Different Angles
Table 2 Physical and mechanical properties of the airbag
Page 3 Of 9
In the deployment of an airbag, an inflator supplies high velocity gas into an airbag causing it to expand rapidly. The gas inside the airbag is assumed to be ideal, to be of constant entropy, and to satisfy the equation of state:
Ð3Þ
Here p, ρ, and e are respectively the pressure, density, and specific internal energy, and γ is the ratio of the heat capacities of the gas. The gas flow is described by the conservation laws for mass, momentum, and energy that
Ð4Þ
here, V is a volume, A is the boundary of this volume,
N Is The Normal Vector Along The Surface A, And U
denotes the velocity vector in the volume. Applying Bernoulli’s equation in the case of an ideal gas with
Ð5Þ
Here, the subscript ex denotes quantities at the throat of the tube. Furthermore u, p, and ρ denote the quan- tities inside that part of the tube that is supplying mass.
Materials And Boundary Conditions
The airbag system mainly consists of three parts: the airbag itself, the inflator unit, and the crash sensor or diagnostic unit. Thus, to study the behavior of the airbag using FE simulations, we need to have an FE model of the airbag in the folded position. A FE model of the airbag was used to simulate the test condition as shown in Fig. 5. LS-DYNA® material model FABRIC (MAT_34) is used to simulate the airbag material. It is a variation of the layered orthotropic material model. Additionally, in the LS-DYNA® material model, fabric leakage can be accounted for. However, for this CAB material, the leak- age is almost negligible and therefore no leakage is specified. The mechanical properties can be determined from the physical test. Typical material properties for airbag fabrics are taken as given in Chawla et al. (2004a) (Table 3). These properties are used to simulate inflation process of airbag (see Table 1). The car dashboard is modeled as the rectangular thin plate using a MAT_RI-
Gid Material, And The Degrees Of Freedom Are Con-
strained in all the directions. The similar properties of thermoplastic polymer are assigned for contact purposes. The porosity of the fabric is assumed zero. The nitro- gen gas is taken for inflating the airbag. Properties of nitrogen gas and initial bag conditions are shown in Table 4. The example on which we perform the study is a typical passenger side airbag. The geometric de- tails have been measured from a commercially avail- able airbag. The initial state of the airbag is a closed rectangular whose sides are to be finished to 482 × 635 mm2 and is shown in Fig. 4.
Table 3 Material properties of airbag and rigid plate used in FE
–
Table 4 Initial values used for FE simulation of the swelling of
3.33 × 10−4
Fig. 4 The initial airbag geometry in the form of a rectangular Bendjaballah et al. International Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering (2017) 12:12
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